Free tool · Legal Research and Writing
Citation Signals: See, Cf., Contra, But See and the Rest
A citation signal tells the reader how a source relates to the proposition. With no signal, the source states the proposition directly or is the origin of a quotation. ‘See’ means the source clearly supports the point with a short step of reasoning. ‘See also’ adds support, ‘e.g.’ marks one of many examples, ‘accord’ marks agreeing authority, ‘cf.’ marks support by analogy, and ‘see generally’ points to background. ‘Contra’, ‘but see’ and ‘but cf.’ mark authority that is contrary, directly, by implication or by analogy. A lawyer must still disclose directly adverse controlling authority.
Tool · Citation Signal Chooser
Signal: See
Meaning: The authority clearly supports the proposition, but does not directly state it: there is an inferential step.
Use: ‘See’ is the usual signal for authority that supports the point by implication or a short step of reasoning.
Note: In court documents the signal is italicised or underlined.
All signals: See, See generally, E.g.,, Accord, See also, Cf., Compare … with …, Contra, But see, But cf..
A citation signal (See, Cf., Contra, But see and the rest) tells the reader how the source relates to your point. Pick the relationship and the tool names the Bluebook signal, what it means and how to use it. It does not decide whether your source really supports your point: that takes your reading of the source. A teaching aid; check the current Bluebook. Runs in your browser; nothing is stored or sent.
How to use it
- Choose how the source relates to your point.
- Read the signal, its meaning and when to use it.
- Add an explanatory parenthetical where the signal calls for one.
- Check the current Bluebook for the details.
Common questions
What is the difference between ‘see’ and no signal?
No signal means the source says it directly. ‘See’ means the reader must take a step from what the source says to your point.
When do I need a parenthetical?
Always with ‘cf.’ and ‘see generally’, and wherever the relevance of the source is not obvious.
Do I have to cite contrary authority?
A lawyer must disclose directly adverse controlling authority in the jurisdiction (ABA Model Rule 3.3(a)(2)), whether or not the other side cites it.
Learn the law behind the tool
This tool is part of our Legal Research and Writing course, with lectures, concept maps, flashcards, interactive exercises and a capstone case. Legal Research and Writing: Citators and Validation.
More free law tools
General information, simplified, mainly on American law, not legal advice. States and countries differ, and real cases turn on facts that a tool cannot capture.